By F. Madondo
Introduction
The year 2025 marks the 62nd Anniversary of Africa Freedom Day or African Liberation Day, commonly known as Africa Day.
On the 25th of May 1963, Africa’s founding fathers met in Ethiopia’s capital city, often described as Africa’s political capital, Addis Ababa (the new flower), to form the historic Organisation of African Unity (OAU).
The mandate of the OAU was to free Africa from the yoke of colonial rule & by fostering a strong sense of the need for African Unity. Indeed, through unity of purpose, colonialism was dislodged.
The historic OAU was replaced on the 9th of July 2002 by the current African Union (AU). Reflecting on OAU and its strong emphasis on the need for unity within, between, and among African countries, one is left wondering at the phenomenon happening in most African countries.
That is, the increasing Separatist Movements (SMs) in Africa. Currently, Africa is estimated to have over 22 active Separatist Movements (SMs). Though the concept of separatism and secession is not unique to Africa, the rate at which SMs are growing or happening in Africa poses a lot of questions than answers.
This article discusses the 17 SMs currently active in Africa and notes two common trends or key drivers in most SMs in Africa: colonial history, on which most SMs have their foundations, and postcolonial governance failure manifesting in the form of marginalisation or feelings of marginalisation for certain groups or regions.
Given this scourge of separatism, which has hit Africa, it looks as if Africa is not moving towards one unitary entity but rather moving towards fragmentation.
But the multimillion-dollar question is, will fragmentation lead Africa into a development trajectory? Will fragmentation help achieve political stability and economic growth?
Separatist Movements (SM) In Africa
In the past 20 years, Africa has experienced a rise in active Separatist Movements(SM). It is estimated that currently, Africa has over 22 active separatist movements.
Meaning of Separatism
According to Benjamin Elisha Sawe, separatism refers to the “advocacy of a separation from the larger group, often, though not always, for reasons that are ethnic, religious, cultural, gender based, or racial”.
Separatism, in simple terms, is the advocacy of a separation from the larger group. Thus, separatism is the advocacy of a breakaway from the larger group.
Aims of Separatist Movements
The major aim of Separatist Movements (SM) is the freedom to self-govern. Political, economic, and historical factors (mostly rooted in colonialism) and marginalization or perceived marginalization* are the major drivers of separatist tendencies.
Separatist Movements mostly want the freedom to self-govern. SM seeks greater autonomy or self-determination for a geographic entity.
Generally, SM advocate for greater sovereignty for their members, who are often part of a common ethnic, religious, or territorial group, and who resist further incorporation into the larger polity, believing instead that they should exercise more control over their political, economic, or cultural affairs than the national states in which they live.
Causes of separatist movements
Political, economic, and historical factors are the main driving forces behind separatist movements. Englebert & Hummel (2005) stick to that argument.
Despite the presence of many factors that foment separatism, “weak central governments, high levels of ethnic diversity, feelings of marginalization, histories of conflict, and unequal regional development” are key drivers in fomenting separatism and the development of separatist movements.
Some scholars believe that historical factors of colonialism are at the root of contemporary separatist movements in Africa.
According to Toyin Falola, a history professor at the University of Texas, “colonialism is at the root of all separatist movements in Africa, dating back to when European colonial powers divided the continent between them at the Berlin Congo Conference in *1884-85 and at the end of World War I. They cobbled together hundreds of people and nations that had existed before into about 50 countries.”
Eexisting structures or religious and ethnic affiliations were not taken into account by the European borders. They were created without consultation of Africans and at the end of the day, brought together incompatible groups under so called one country or even demarcated some strange border lines.
1. Angola- Cabinda Province
The Cabinda War is an ongoing separatist insurgency, waged by the *Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC*) against the government of Angola. FLEC aims at the restoration of the self-proclaimed Republic of Cabinda, located within the borders of the Cabinda province of Angola.
WHY?
The Cabinda war is driven primarily by the desire for independence from Angola, led by the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC), a separatist group, aiming to establish a separate Republic of Cabinda.
The armed conflict between FLEC and the Angolan government has been ongoing for decades, with periods of increased and decreased intensity. Cabinda is a region rich in oil resources, and the desire to control these resources may be a factor in the separatist movement.
2. Cameroon-Ambazonia
Genesis of Separatism (rooted in colonialism)
After World War I in 1919, the German colony of Cameroon was placed under a British and French mandate under the Treaty of Versailles,1919 (an arrangement which sowed seeds of the current Anglophone conflict in Cameroon).
When Britain and France, in 1916, expelled Germany from Cameroon (to punish Germany for causing World War 1), they shared Cameroon, with France taking the bigger part.
The part that went to France is today commonly known as the Francophone region, while that which went to Britain is commonly known as the Anglophone region. The Anglophone regions are the Northwest and Southwest Regions (Former British Southern Cameroons).
Referendum of 1961
A referendum in 1961 sealed the future of British Cameroon: The northern region decided to join Nigeria, while the southern region aspired to become part of the Republic of Cameroon, the former French colony.
Today, Cameroon’s English-speaking population is in the minority and complains of being marginalized compared to the French majority. These tensions eventually boiled over into a violent conflict dubbed the Anglophone Crisis.
In 2022, the two English-speaking provinces in the west symbolically declared their independence and proclaimed the Republic of Ambazonia, with their proposed Capital in Buer. Ambazonia refers to the name given to the Northwest and Southwest Regions of Cameroon, the two English-speaking regions.
WHY?
In October 1961, French Cameroon and Southern Cameroons decided to form a single state. But there hasn’t been genuine harmonydue to the marginalization of the people of Southern Cameroons.
Marginalization was one of the reasons why English-speaking lawyers and teachers decided to go through strike in late 2016 to ask for judicial and educational reforms.
The government’s approach to resolving the problem insteadgave birth to the Anglophone conflict that has taken away thousands of lives and displaced thousands. Kidnapping is now rife.
And there are *many parts of the Northwest and Southwest Regions of Cameroon wherein schools have not been functional since the beginning of the strike & conflict in 2016.
Those spearheading the separatist armed conflict are for the secession of the former British Southern Cameroons. And the Government says Cameroon is indivisible.
Colonialism gave birth to new identities, the Anglophone and the Francophone. And that has been a source of division, marginalization, and unequal regional development. Indeed, Britain and France sowed the seed of division in Cameroon*. And post-colonial bad governance has been a fertile ground for this seed of division.
3 Equatorial Guinea – Union Bioko
Bioko is an island located in the northern part of Equatorial Guinea in the Gulf of Guinea. 58% of the Bioko Island population is made up of the Bubi community. The movement for the self-determination of Bioko Island is a prescribed political organization that wants secession of Bioko Island from Equatorial Guinea.
WHY?
The main reason behind this is that Equatorial Guinea is largely inhabited by the Fang ethnic group. The Bubi, a minority group, felt the Fang would marginalize them as they were greatly outnumbered.
The Union Bubi existed during the colonial period and wanted the separation of Bioko Island from Equatorial Guinea. The (SM), going by the name Union Bubi, operates discreetly as it is outlawed in Equatorial Guinea.
4 Mali – Tuareg’s Azawad Region
Tuareg groups from Northern Mali (region known as Azawad) have time and again sought independence or greater autonomy from the Timbuktu administration and at certain periods of time engaged in armed rebellion and conflict with the Malian government. The National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA), for example, engaged in armed conflict with the Malian government in the 1990-1995 Tuareg rebellion and the 2012 Northern Mali conflict in which the separatist group briefly controlled parts of the Northern Mali before being pushed back by Malian forces and international interventions forces.
WHY?
The Tuaregs, described as the “Kurds of West Africa,” just like the Kurds of the Middle East, are a substantial ethnic population that crosses the boundaries of several countries, but have no majority in any one country. As a result, many Tuaregs are pressing for better representation of their territory.
5. Morocco – Canary Islands
The Canary Islands are a self-governing community of Spain located on the Atlantic Ocean. The islands consist of several main islands and smaller islands. The international frontier of the Canaries has been the cause of discourse between Morocco and Spain. The islands were granted self-governance by Spain in 1982.
WHY?
There are several active political groups in the Canaries calling for the separation of the Canary Islands from Spain to be a self-governing state. The groups included in the island include the Popular Front of the Canary Islands (FREPIC-AWANAK) (1989), Altanativa Nationalista Canaria (2006), Alternativa popular Canaria (2002), Unidad del Pueblo (1998), and Inekaren (2008).
6. Morocco, Western Sahara – Polisario Front
Western Sahara is a desert region located in North Africa in the Maghreb region, between Morocco and Mauritania. It is an area of conflict between Morocco and the Sahrawi rebels. Western Sahara is partly occupied by Moroccans (two-thirds) and partly administered by the Polisario Front. The region was once a Spanish colony, and on November 14, 1975, Spain signed an agreement with Mauritania and Morocco to transfer administration of the region to both countries. Morocco acquired the northern two-thirds of the region, and Mauritania acquired the remaining third in the south. The Sahrawi, the ethnic group in the region, resisted the invasion, and in 1979, Mauritania left, then Morocco took control of the whole region.
WHY?
The Polisario Front was founded on May 10, 1973, by El-Ouli Mustafa Sayed. The front has been actively fighting for the independence of Western Sahara from Morocco and is considered the legal representative for the Sahrawi people. In the 1980s, Morocco built a sand wall around the economically productive part of the region, manned by the Moroccan army to keep the Polisario out. The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic is the remaining part controlled by the Polisario Front.
7. Namibia’s Caprivi Strip – Caprivi Liberation Army
The Caprivi Strip in Namibia’s northeast was a result of territorial agreements between Germany and Britain (during the Colonial Era). It was initially a separate entity within German South West Africa(Namibia) and later directly governed by the Apartheid era_ South Africa. Formed through arbitrary territorial deals, it was initially detached from the rest of German South West Africa(Namibia) and later directly governed by Pretoria during the South African administration, reinforcing its distinct identity. After Namibian independence, centralized SWAPO rule exacerbated existing divisions, leading to the failed 1999 Caprivi secession. Some secessionists, like the Caprivi Liberation Front, viewed the area as marginalized, advocating for incorporation into a revived Barotseland.
WHY?
The Caprivi Strip in Namibia experienced separatism due to historical factors and perceived marginalization. Perceived Marginalization: After Namibian independence, the Caprivi Strip was perceived by some as marginalized by the centralized SWAPO government, which focused its resources and attention on the northern Ovamboland region. In 1999, the Caprivi Liberation Front, a group advocating for secession, attempted unsuccessfully to secede from Namibia 1999. Despite the failed 1999 secession, tensions have persisted, with ongoing concerns about the region’s economic and political status within Namibia.
8. Nigeria – Biafra
Biafra is located in the east of Biafra, near the Bight of Biafra. Biafra is located in the east of Biafra, near the Bight of Biafra. Biafra was a West African state made up of Eastern Nigeria States claiming secession from Nigeria. After independence, Nigeria was divided into the North, with a population was predominantly Muslim population, and the South, where the population is mostly Christian. The South was further divided into the East, occupied by the Igbo, and the West, which was occupied by the Yoruba. Biafra existed from May 30, 1967, to January 1970, and was mostly inhabited by the Igbo.
WHY?
The Igbo wanted secession due to ethnic, cultural, and economic tension between different Nigerian ethnic groups. On January 15, 1970, Biafra merged back with Nigeria. In 2012, there was a rise of groups like the Indigenous People of Biafra, Biafra Zionist Movement, with Benjamin Onwuka as the leader, and the Biafra Rebirth, advocating for the re-separation of Biafra. The ethnic groups supporting the separation are the Igbo, Ijaw, Ibibio, and Annang. The Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra is an active political party with Ralph Uwazuruike as the leader. The party is divided into the Biafra shadow government and the Biafra government in exile, and declares to be a peaceful movement aiming for the re-separation of Biafra.
9. Senegal Casamance
Casamance is a territory in Senegal south of Gambia that includes the Casamance River and is largely populated by the Diola people. The Diola are a minority ethnic group in Senegal who wanted independence from Senegal.
WHY?
The Diola felt they were being economically sidelined. In 1982, the Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance advocating for cessation was formed. Since 1990, there has been an active movement by the forces to separate Casamance from Senegal.
10. Somalia_ Somaliland
Somaliland is a self-governing region of the Republic of Somalia. The area has a population of about four million people, with Hargeisa as the capital city. On May 18, 1991, the state declared independence from Somalia.
WHY?
Somaliland was formed by the Somali National Movement and other militia groups who felt that the Isaaq clan was marginalized and slaughtered in 1988 during the Siadde Barre rule of Somalia. The region has a government and an army, the Somaliland National Armed Forces. The President of Somaliland is Ahmed Mohamed Mohamoud.
11. South Africa Western Cape – Cape Party
The Western Cape is one of the nine provinces of South Africa. The population in 2017 was estimated at 6.5 million people. The capital of the region is Cape Town. The Cape Party is a political party advocating for the independence of the Western Cape from South Africa.
WHY?
The party was formed by Jack Miller in 2007 and holds that the Western Cape people are linguistically and culturally different from the other people of South Africa, so they deserve to be independent as per section 235 of the constitution.
12.South Africa’s Volkstaat/Orania
A state within a state
Orania is a white separatist South African town founded by Afrikaners. Located along the Orange River in the Karoo region of the Northern Cape province.
WHY?
The town was founded to create a stronghold for the Afrikaner minority group, the Afrikaans language, and the Afrikaner culture through the creation of an Afrikaner state known as a Volkstaat. Orania’s separatism is the result of white Afrikaner residents in South Africa, who, following the end of apartheid in 1994, sought to create a separate enclave to maintain their culture and identity. They aimed to form a “Volkstaat,” a separate Afrikaner state. Volkstaat was & is never officially recognized. Orania has become a whites-only town, attracting white Afrikaners seeking a community that shares their values and beliefs.
13.Sudan_ Darfur Region
Darfur is located in the west of Sudan. The region was independent and was led by a sultan until 1916, when the United Kingdom and Egyptian colonial rule merged it with Sudan. Conflict in Darfur escalated in 2003 with the non-Arab rebels of Darfur, *Darfur Liberation* Front, fighting the Sudan government.
WHY?
The rebels claim the Sudan government was subduing the non-Arab population of Zaghawa, Masalit, and Fur in Darfur. Today, the Darfur Liberation Front is known as the Sudan Liberation Movement. There have been peace talks between the movement officials and the government of Sudan, with Darfur anticipating to become self-governing or have a vice president to head the region, but none have come to fruition, and war still rages in Darfur.
14.Tanzania/Zanzibar – Uamsho
Zanzibar is a semi-independent group of islands located in Tanzania, East Africa. The region is made up of several islands. The three main islands are: Ugunja (the island mainly known as Zanzibar), Pemba, Latham, and Mafia Island. In 1964, Zanzibar united with Tanganyika to form the United Republic of Tanzania. The Association for Islamic Mobilization and Propagation (Uamsho) is an active Islamic group seeking to separate Zanzibar from Tanzania.
WHY?
Uamsho was registered in 2001 as a non-governmental organization seeking to have Zanzibar as a fully independent island and to restore Islamic laws and way of living on the island.The group’s leader is Farid Hadi Ahmed. Uamsho has recently been accused of turning into a political group and spreading hatred among the people of Zanzibar.
15 Uganda – Rwenzururu
The kingdom of Rwenzururu includes the districts of Bundibugyo, Kasese, and Ntoroko. The kingdom of Rwenzururu includes the districts of Bundibugyo, Kasese, and Ntoroko. The Rwenzururu kingdom is located in the Rwenzori Mountains in Western Uganda. The Amba and Konjo people occupy the kingdom. The kingdom was named Rwenzururu after the movement that fought for its separation. The Rwenzururu fighters were subdued for a while from 1964 until 1979 when they came up again.
WHY?
The Amba and Konjo people wanted a separate kingdom away from Uganda, but talks with the Ugandan government led to official recognition of the Rwenzururu kingdom on March 17, 2008.
16. Zambia – Barotseland
The Barotse Freedom Movement (BFM), the Barotse Royal Establishment (BRE), the Barotseland National Council (BNC), and the Movement for the Restoration of the Barotse Agreement (MOREBA) are all organisations intended to secure the secession of Western Province from the Republic of Zambia. In March 2012, Barotseland, a region in Western Zambia, made headlines with declarations of independence and a push for self-determination. The *Lozis,* the largest ethnic group in Barotseland, led this movement. They vowed to pursue a peaceful separation from the Zambian government. The Zambian government, however, viewed this push for independence as irresponsible and unacceptable.
WHY?
Barotseland has several grievances related to its relationship with the central government, including perceived economic neglect, cultural differences, and a desire for increased autonomy. They (the Lozi) feel economically disadvantaged and believe their natural resources are not being managed effectively. Additionally, the Lozi people in Barotseland are seeking to regain autonomy and control over their resources, particularly after the discovery of diamonds in the area. Hichilema’s government, in addressing the ongoing Barotseland dispute, has proposed the renaming of Western Province to Barotseland Province emerges as a potential step towards reconciliation and fostering a sense of inclusivity and respect for the region’s historical and cultural aspects. However, President Hichilema has dispelled notions of a Barotseland independence, emphasizing Zambia as a unitary state, echoing Kenneth Kaunda’s “One Zambia, One Nation” stance.
17. Zimbabwe Mthwakazi Republic Party
Mthwakazi separatism refers to a movement calling for the separation of the Matabeleland region of Zimbabwe from the rest of the country, to establish an independent Mthwakazi state. Mthwakazi Republic Party is a political party in Zimbabwe. It has been described as both secessionist and restorationist, seeking to restore the Mthwakazi kingdom. Mthwakazi originally refers to Mzilikazi’s kingdom when he came with his group of followers in the South-Western part of modern-day Zimbabwe between the period 1828_1834.
WHY?
This movement is driven by a combination of historical grievances, cultural distinctiveness, and perceived marginalization of the Matabele people (Ndebele people). The Mthwakazi people have a distinct culture and language (Ndebele) that sets them apart from the majority Shona-speaking population in Zimbabwe. In essence, Mthwakazi separatism is a political movement advocating for the self-determination of the Matabele people through the creation of an independent state, demarcated, surprisingly, using the Jameson Border Line drawn by the British South African Company (BSAC) an invading Company when it invaded the other part which they called Mashonaland in 1890.
COMMON TRENDS
Marginalization or Feeling of Marginalization
From the discussion above on many current active SM, marginalization, a governance issue, emerges as the main driver of most SM. Marginalization or feeling of marginalization is a common & central theme in most SMs. But what is marginalization?. Marginalization is the treatment of a person or group as insignificant or peripheral. It is social, political & economic exclusion. Marginalization takes place when a person or group is systematically denied or feels they have been denied access to economic, social & political spheres in their society or nation. However, some may point out that marginalization is subjective & problem/s arise from the feeling of being excluded within a nation, particularly if they feel their cultural or ethnic identity is not recognized or protected. For example, Zanzibar SM is based on the feeling that Islamic laws are not being observed. Other factors that can lead to marginalization or feeling of marginalization is denial of access to institutions and opportunities, history of conflict like in the case of Zimbabwe where the precolonial Ndebele raiding of other groups like Shona speaking groups as well as the early to mid 1980s known as “Gukurahundi Disturbances” is used as a rallying point in their bid to have a breakaway Mthwakazi State. Thus, marginalization or feelings of marginalization of certain groups within a state or nation remain a major factor in the rise of SM in Africa.
Dealing With Marginalization or Feeling of Marginalization
To effectively address marginalization or feelings of marginalization in governance and development, it is crucial to understand the root causes of the marginalization or feelings of marginalization, to implement inclusive strategies. This includes ensuring equitable access to opportunities, resources, promoting participation in decision-making, and strengthening the capacity of marginalized groups to advocate for their rights. Hence, in dealing with issues of marginalization or feelings of marginalization, there is need to identify the root causes of the marginalization, recognize the specific factors leading to that particular marginalization, and recognize the specific needs of the marginalized group/s. Also, try to analyze & comprehend the political context in terms of assessing the existing power structures, legal frameworks, and political systems* that may be contributing to such marginalization or feelings of marginalization.
Legacy of Colonialism
Colonialism or the consequences of colonialism continue up to this day to stoke the “fires of separatism”. Colonial borders have fanned the division of ethnic groups by splitting communities, leading to inter-ethnic tensions and conflicts. This later manifests itself in separatist tendencies. The arbitrary drawing of borders created new states that often lacked a clear sense of national identity or cohesive political structures, like in the case of the Banyarwanda region in the Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The East Congo is a fuelled party, because Rwanda, irrespective of the Berlin border, claims parts of Eastern Congo territory as historically, Rwanda’s territory. Colonial powers often drew boundaries without regard for ethnic or cultural boundaries, leading to conflicts over territory and identity in post-colonial states. This is so true in the scenario of the Tuaregs of West Africa in leading to separatist tendencies in Mali. This has posed significant challenges to nation-building efforts, as different ethnic groups within these states compete for resources and political power. This is explained by separatist tendencies in Nigeria, focusing on Biafra, Ogoni, Oduduwa SMs_ who can be correctly argued that the root cause of such SM is control of the oil resource.
Colonial legacies exacerbated separatism in various ways, including by reinforcing ethnic divisions, hindering the development of strong national identities, and creating economic disparities that fuel resentment. For example of the Caprivi strip of Namibia since colonial times had a different economy & lacked economic development compared to other parts of Namibia, thereby creating marginalization or a feeling of marginalization. Colonial powers often exploited existing ethnic tensions or created new ones to maintain control. In Cameroon when Cameroon by then a German colony taken away from Germany & largely divided between France & Britain at the Treaty of Versailles of 1919. New identities were created. Francophone, Cameroon of the French & Anglophone to Cameroon of the British. The system favoured the majority French at the expense of the Southwest & Northwest (Ambazonia), leading to a conflict, dubbed the *Anglophone Conflict* since 2016 up to date, with no solution in sight. This “divide-and-rule” strategy has led to lasting ethnic rivalries and a sense of marginalization for certain groups within post-colonial states. Colonial rule often undermined the development of unified national identities by favouring existing ethnic or regional identities and restricting the political expression of other groups. For example, in Equatorial Guinea, the Bioko SM, made mostly of the minority, the Bubi, felt the colonial administration had restricted their identity because they were a minority, and even at independence, did not favour the idea of joining Equatorial Guinea & wanted separation of Bioko Island from Equatorial Guinea. Colonial economies were often designed to benefit the colonizers, leading to unequal distribution of resources and infrastructure within post-colonial states. So, at independence, some regions were better off in terms of development, leading to feelings of marginalization among groups in less developed regions. Poor & questionable post-colonial governance only served to exacerbate the state of affairs. This can create resentment and a sense of injustice among marginalized groups who feel economically disadvantaged, even with the advent of post-colonial administration. This scenario is so true in the case of the Caprivi Strip SM. Colonial powers often did not allow for democratic participation, and this can lead to resentment and calls for self-determination in post-colonial states. For example, the conflict in Darfur and the secession of South Sudan are partly attributed to the legacy of British colonial rule, which did not fully address ethnic tensions and inequalities. It’s important to note that the impact of colonial legacies is complex and varies depending on the specific historical context and the actions of post-colonial governments. However, the legacy of colonialism continues to be a significant factor up to this day in the rise of separatist movements in many parts of Africa.
Argument
Of course, Africa cannot continue to blame colonialism for her woes, but it is also necessary & correct to unpack the role of colonialism in laying the foundation for current SMs in Africa. Also, it needs to be pointed out that post-colonial poor Governance in Africa, instead of managing the tendency towards separatism, has worsened & fanned the growth of active SMs in contemporary Africa. However, letting people go their separate ways requires a democratic process that is supported by the people. Unless you can prove “the people” are demanding that, it is a waste of time to focus on separatism. The choir of some SM (a group of people blinded by their passion) is not ‘the people’, just romantic separatist political zealots. HOW will a separate & fragmented Africa work?. In the eyes of some, it will work because they wrongly & naively believe all their problems are due to “the other ethnic group”. This is not true or correct, for reality is far from that. To separatists, the notion of separating is attractive & tempting. However, our problems in Africa are deep-seated, and focusing on silly ethnic nationalism or separatist tendencies will not solve anything. In a separated & fragmented Africa is tempting or attractive to separatists, so far not one successful example has emerged. It did not work out for Ethiopia-Eritrea (they are both poor & struggling). And it did not work out for South Sudan (they too, still the poorest in Africa, and conflict ridden.
Takeaways
Two twin factors are commonly responsible for the rise in SM in Africa. Firstly, our colonial history, and secondly, our poor governance. Colonial history manifests itself in long denied expression of group identities, sometimes lumping together incompatible groups into one nation, for the strategic interests of the former colonial master. Poor governance by post-colonial African states has even complicated everything. Due to poor governance, some regions, some groups are left out, or feel left out of the development focus. This manifests itself in outright marginalization or feelings of marginalization, when other regions or groups feel victimized, feel humiliated, feel dehumanized, and feel like not belong to the large group. The next thing is a Separatist Movement (SM).
F. Madondo (African Teacher) fortmada123@gmail.com
